(1) 1XXX series. These are aluminums of 99 percent or higher purity which are used primarily in the electrical and chemical industries.

(2) 2XXX series. Copper is the principal alloy in this group, which provides extremely high strength when properly heat treated. These alloys do not produce as good corrosion resistance and are often clad with pure aluminum or special-alloy aluminum. These alloys are used in the aircraft industry.

(3) 3XXX series. Manganese is the major alloying element in this group, which is non-heat-treatable. Manganese content is limited to about 1.5 percent. These alloys have moderate strength and are easily worked.

(4) 4XXX series. Silicon is the major alloying element in this group. It can be added in sufficient quantities to substantially reduce the melting point and is used for brazing alloys and welding electrodes. Most of the alloys in this group are non-heat-treatable.

(5) 5XXX series. Magnesium is the major alloying element of this group, which are alloys of medium strength. They possess good welding characteristics and good resistance to corrosion, but the amount of cold work should be limited.

(6) 6XXX series. Alloys in this group contain silicon and magnesium, which make them heat treatable. These alloys possess medium strength and good corrosion resistance.

(7) 7XXX series. Zinc is the major alloying element in this group. Magnesium is also included in most of these alloys. Together, they form a heat-treatable alloy of very high strength, which is used for aircraft frames.

(1) Aluminum is an active metal which reacts with oxygen in the air to produce a hard, thin film of aluminum oxide on the surface. The melting point of aluminum oxide is approximately 3600°F (1982°C) which is almost three times the melting point of pure aluminum (1220°F (660°C)). In addition, this aluminum oxide film absorbs moisture from the air, particularly as it becomes thicker. Moisture is a source of hydrogen, which causes porosity in aluminum welds. Hydrogen may also come from oil, paint, and dirt in the weld area. It also comes from the oxide and foreign materials on the electrode or filler wire, as well as from the base metal. Hydrogen will enter the weld pool and is soluble in molten aluminum. As the aluminum solidifies, it will retain much less hydrogen. The hydrogen is rejected during solidification. With a rapid cooling rate, free hydrogen is retained within the weld and will cause porosity. Porosity will decrease weld strength and ductility, depending on the amount.

(2) Aluminum has a high thermal conductivity and low melting temperature. It conducts heat three to five times as fast as steel, depending on the specific alloy. More heat must be put into the aluminum, even though the melting temperature of aluminum is less than half that of steel. Because of the high thermal conductivity, preheat is often used for welding thicker sections. If the temperature is too high or the time period is too long, weld joint strength in both heat-treated and work-hardened alloys may be diminished. The preheat for aluminum should not exceed 400°F (204°C), and the parts should not be held at that temperature longer than necessary. Because of the high heat conductivity, procedures should utilize higher speed welding processes using high heat input. Both the gas tungsten arc and the gas metal arc processes supply this requirement. The high heat conductivity of aluminum can be helpful, since the weld will solidify very quickly if heat is conducted away from the weld extremely fast. Along with surface tension, this helps hold the weld metal in position and makes all-position welding with gas tungsten arc and gas metal arc welding practical.

(3) The thermal expansion of aluminum is twice that of steel. In addition, aluminum welds decrease about 6 percent in volume when solidifying from the molten state. This change in dimension may cause distortion and cracking.

(4) The final reason aluminum is different from steels when welding is that it does not exhibit color as it approaches its melting temperature until it is raised above the melting point, at which time it will glow a dull red. When soldering or brazing aluminum with a torch, flux is used. The flux will melt as the temperature of the base metal approaches the temperature required. The flux dries out first, and melts as the base metal reaches the correct working temperature. When torch welding with oxyacetylene or oxyhydrogen, the surface of the base metal will melt first and assume a characteristic wet and shiny appearance. (This aids in knowing when welding temperatures are reached.) When welding with gas tungsten arc or gas metal arc, color is not as important, because the weld is completed before the adjoining area melts.

(1) Plate welding. Because of the difficulty of controlling the arc, butt and fillet welds are difficult to produce in plates less than 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) thick. When welding plate heavier than 1/8 in. (3.2 mm), a joint prepared with a 20 degree bevel will have strength equal to a weld made by the oxyacetylene process. This weld may be porous and unsuitable for liquid-or gas-tight joints. Metal-arc welding is, however, particularly suitable for heavy material and is used on plates up to 2-1/2 in. (63.5 mm) thick.

(2) Current and polarity settings. The current and polarity settings will vary with each manufacturer's type of electrodes. The polarity to be used should be determined by trial on the joints to be made.

(3) Plate edge preparation. In general, the design of welded joints for aluminum is quite consistent with that for steel joints. However, because of the higher fluidity of aluminum under the welding arc, some important general principles should be kept in mind. With the lighter gauges of aluminum sheet, less groove spacing is advantageous when weld dilution is not a factor. The controlling factor is joint preparation. A specially designed V groove that is applicable to aluminum is shown in A, figure 7-11. This type of joint is excellent where welding can be done from one side only and where a smooth, penetrating bead is desired. The effectiveness of this particular design depends upon surface tension, and should be applied on all material over 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) thick. The bottom of the special V groove must be wide enough to contain the root pass completely. This requires adding a relatively large amount of filler alloy to fill the groove. Excellent control of the penetration and sound root pass welds are obtained. This edge preparation can be employed for welding in all positions. It eliminates difficulties due to burn-through or over-penetration in the overheat and horizontal welding positions. It is applicable to all weldable base alloys and all filler alloys.

(1) General. This fast, adaptable process is used with direct current re-verse polarity and an inert gas to weld heavier thicknesses of aluminum alloys, in any position, from 1/016 in. (1.6 mm) to several inches thick. TM 5-3431-211-15 describes the operation of a typical MIG welding set.

(2) Shielding gas. Precautions should be taken to ensure the gas shield is extremely efficient. Welding grade argon, helium, or a mixture of these gases is used for aluminum welding. Argon produces a smother and more stable arc than helium. At a specific current and arc length, helium provides deeper penetration and a hotter arc than argon. Arc voltage is higher with helium, and a given change in arc length results in a greater change in arc voltage. The bead profile and penetration pattern of aluminum welds made with argon and helium differ. With argon, the bead profile is narrower and more convex than helium. The penetration pattern shows a deep central section. Helium results in a flatter, wider bead, and has a broader under-bead penetration pattern. A mixture of approximately 75 percent helium and 25 percent argon provides the advantages of both shielding gases with none of the undesirable characteristics of either. Penetration pattern and bead contour show the characteristics of both gases. Arc stability is comparable to argon. The angle of the gun or torch is more critical when welding aluminum with inert shielding gas. A 30° leading travel angle is recommended. The electrode wire tip should be oversize for aluminum. Table 7-21 provides welding procedure schedules for gas metal-arc welding of aluminum.

(3) Welding technique. The electrode wire must be clean. The arc is struck with the electrode wire protruding about 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) from the cup. A frequently used technique is to strike the arc approximately 1.0 in. (25.4 mm) ahead of the beginning of the weld and then quickly bring the arc to the weld starting point, reverse the direction of travel, and proceed with normal welding. Alternatively, the arc may be struck outside the weld groove on a starting tab. When finishing or terminating the weld, a similar practice may be followed by reversing the direction of welding, and simultaneously increasing the speed of welding to taper the width of the molten pool prior to breaking the arc. This helps to avert craters and crater cracking. Runoff tabs are commonly used. Having established the arc, the welder moves the electrode along the joint while maintaining a 70 to 85 degree forehand angle relative to the work. A string bead technique is normally preferred. Care should be taken that the forehand angle is not changed or increased as the end of the weld is approached. Arc travel speed controls the bead size. When welding aluminum with this process, it is must important that high travel speeds be maintained. When welding uniform thicknesses, the electrode to work angle should be equal on both sides of the weld. When welding in the horizontal position, best results are obtained by pointing the gun slightly upward. When welding thick plates to thin plates, it is helpful to direct the arc toward the heavier section. A slight backhand angle is sometimes helpful when welding thin sections to thick sections. The root pass of a joint usually requires a short arc to provide the desired penetration. Slightly longer arcs and higher arc voltages may be used on subsequent passes.

The wire feeding equipment for aluminum welding must be in good adjustment for efficient wire feeding. Use nylon type liners in cable assemblies. Proper drive rolls must be selected for the aluminum wire and for the size of the electrode wire. It is more difficult to push extremely small diameter aluminum wires through long gun cable assemblies than steel wires. For this reason, the spool gun or the newly developed guns which contain a linear feed motor are used for the small diameter electrode wires. Water-cooled guns are required except for low-current welding. Both the constant current (CC) power source with matching voltage sensing wire feeder and the constant voltage (CV) power source with constant speed wire feeder are used for welding aluminum. In addition, the constant speed wire feeder is sometimes used with the constant current power source. In general, the CV system is preferred when welding on thin material and using all diameter electrode wire. It provides better arc starting and regulation. The CC system is preferred when welding thick material using larger electrode wires. The weld quality seems better with this system. The constant current power source with a moderate drop of 15 to 20 volts per 100 amperes and a constant speed wire feeder provide the most stable power input to the weld and the highest weld quality.

(4) Joint design. Edges may be prepared for welding by sawing, machining, rotary planing, routing or arc cutting. Acceptable joint designs are shown in figure 7-12.

(1) The gas tungsten arc welding process is used for welding the thinner sections of aluminum and aluminum alloys. There are several precautions that should be mentioned with respect to using this process.

(2) Alternating current.

g. Square Wave Alternating Current Welding (TIG).

h. Shielded Metal-Arc Welding. In the shielded metal-arc welding process, a heavy dipped or extruded flux coated electrode is used with dcrp. The electrodes are covered similarly to conventional steel electrodes. The flux coating provides a gaseous shield around the arc and molten aluminum puddle, and chemically combines and removes the aluminum oxide, forming a slag. When welding aluminum, the process is rather limited due to arc spatter, erratic arc control, limitations on thin material, and the corrosive action of the flux if it is not removed properly.

i. Shielded Carbon-Arc Welding. The shielded carbon-arc welding process can be used in joining aluminum. It requires flux and produces welds of the same appearance, soundness, and structure as those produced by either oxyacetylene or oxyhydrogen welding. Shielded carbon-arc welding is done both manually and automatically. A carbon arc is used as a source of heat while filler metal is supplied from a separate filler rod. Flux must be removed after welding; otherwise severe corrosion will result. Manual shielded carbon-arc welding is usually limited to a thickness of less than 3/8 in. (9.5 mm), accomplished by the same method used for manual carbon arc welding of other material. Joint preparation is similar to that used for gas welding. A flux covered rod is used.

j. Atomic Hydrogen Welding. This welding process consists of maintaining an arc between two tungsten electrodes in an atmosphere of hydrogen gas. The process can be either manual or automatic with procedures and techniques closely related to those used in oxyacetylene welding. Since the hydrogen shield surrounding the base metal excludes oxygen, smaller amounts of flux are required to combine or remove aluminum oxide. Visibility is increased, there are fewer flux inclusions, and a very sound metal is deposited.

k. Stud Welding.

l. Electron Beam Welding. Electron beam welding is a fusion joining process in which the workpiece is bombarded with a dense stream of high velocity electrons, and virtually all of the kinetic energy of the electrons is transformed into heat upon impact. Electron beam welding usually takes place in an evacuated chamber. The chamber size is the limiting factor on the weldment size. Conventional arc and gas heating melt little more than the surface. Further penetration comes solely by conduction of heat in all directions from this molten surface spot. The fusion zone widens as it depends. The electron beam is capable of such intense local heating that it almost instantly vaporizes a hole through the entire joint thickness. The walls of this hole are molten, and as the hole is moved along the joint, more metal on the advancing side of the hole is melted. This flaws around the bore of the hole and solidifies along the rear side of the hole to make the weld. The intensity of the beam can be diminished to give a partial penetration with the same narrow configuration. Electron beam welding is generally applicable to edge, butt, fillet, melt-thru lap, and spot welds. Filler metal is rarely used except for surfacing.

m. Resistance Welding.

n. Gas welding. Gas welding has been done on aluminum using both oxyacetylene and oxyhydrogen flames. In either case, an absolutely neutral flame is required. Flux is used as well as a filler rod. The process also is not too popular because of low heat input and the need to remove flux.

o. Electroslag welding. Electroslag welding is used for joining pure aluminum, but is not successful for welding the aluminum alloys. Submerged arc welding has been used in some countries where inert gas is not available.

p. Other processes. Most of the solid state welding processes, including friction welding, ultrasonic welding, and cold welding are used for aluminums. Aluminum can also be joined by soldering and brazing. Brazing can be accomplished by most brazing methods. A high silicon alloy filler material is used.

(1) High thermal conductivity.

(2) High thermal expansion coefficient.

(3) Relatively low melting point.

(4) Hot short or brittle at elevated temperatures.

(5) Very fluid molten metal.

(6) High electrical conductivity.

(7) Strength due to cold working.

(1) The gas metal arc welding process is used for welding thicker materials. It is faster, has a higher deposition rate, and usually results in less distortion. It can produce high-quality welds in all positions. It uses direct current, electrode positive. The CV type power source is recommended.

(2) Metal-arc welding of copper differs from steel welding as indicated below:

(3) Most copper and copper alloy coated electrodes are designed for use with reverse (electrode positive) polarity. Electrodes for use with alternating currents are available.

(4) Peening is used to reduce stresses in the joints. Flat-nosed tools are used for this purpose. Numerous moderate blows should be used, because vigorous blows could cause crystallizations or other defects in the joint.

(1) Copper can be successfully welded by the gas tungsten-arc welding process. The weldability of each copper alloy group by this process depends upon the alloying elements used. For this reason, no one set of welding conditions will cover all groups.

(2) Direct current straight polarity is generally used for welding most copper alloys. However, high frequency alternating current or direct current reverse polarity is used for beryllium copper or copper alloy sheets less than 0.05 in. (0.13 cm) thick.

(3) For some copper alloys, a flux is recommended. However, a flux containing fluoride should never be used since the arc will vaporize the fluoride and irritate the lungs of the operator.

(1) This process for copper welding is most satisfactory for oxygen-free copper, although it can be used for welding oxygen-bearing copper up to 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) in thickness. The root opening for thinner material should be 3/16 in. (4.8 mm), and 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) for heavier material. The electrode should be graphite type carbon, sharpened to a long tapered point at least equal to the size of the welding rod. Phosphor bronze welding rods are used most frequently in this process.

(2) The arc should be sharp and directed entirely on the weld metal, even at the start. If possible, all carbon-arc welding should be done in the flat welding position or on a moderate slope.

(1) Magnesium oxide surface coating which increases with an increase in temperature.

(2) High thermal conductivity.

(3) Relatively high thermal expansion coefficient.

(4) Relatively low melting temperature.

(5) The absence of color change as temperature approaches the melting point.

 

(1) Grease should be removed by the vapor degreasing system in which trichloroethylene is utilized or with a hot alkaline cleaning compound. Grease may also be removed by dipping small parts in dry cleaning solvent or mineral spirits paint thinner.

(2) Mechanical cleaning can be done satisfactorily with 160 and 240 grit aluminum oxide abrasive cloth, stainless steel wool, or by wire brushing.

(3) Immediately after the grease, oil, and other foreign materials have been removed from the surface, the metal should be dipped for 3 minutes in a hot solution with the following composition:

The bath should be operated at 70°F (21°C). The work should be removed from the solution, thoroughly rinsed with hot water, and air dried. The welding rod should also be cleaned to obtain the best results.

(1) Goggles, gloves, and other equipment designed to protect the eyes and skin of the welder must be worn.

(2) The possibility of fire caused by welding magnesium metal is very remote. The temperature of initial fusion must be reached before solid magnesium metal ignites. Sustained burning occurs only if this temperature is maintained. Finely divided magnesium particles such as grinding dust, filings, shavings, borings, and chips present a fire hazard. They ignite readily if proper precautions are not taken. Magnesium scrap of this type is not common to welding operations. If a magnesium fire does start, it can be extinguished with dry sand, dry powdered soapstone, or dry cast iron chips. The preferred extinguishing agents for magnesium fires are graphite base powders.

(1) Because of its rapid oxidation when magnesium is heated to its melting point, an inert gas (argon or helium) is used to shield metal during arc welding. This process requires no flux and permits high welding speeds, with sound welds of high strength.

(2) Direct current machines of the constant current type operating on straight polarity (electrode positive) and alternating current machines are used with a high frequency current superimposed on the welding current. Both alternating and direct current machines are used for thin gauge material. However, because of better penetrating power, alternating current machines are used on material over 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) thick. Helium is considered more practical than argon for use with direct current reverse polarity. However, three times as much helium by volume as argon is required for a given amount of welding. Argon is used with alternating current.

(3) The tungsten electrodes are held in a water cooled torch equipped with required electrical cables and an inlet and nozzle for the inert gas.

(4) The two magnesium alloys, in the form of sheet, plate, and extrusion, that are most commonly used for applications involving welding are ASTM-1A (Fed Spec QQ-M-54), which is alloyed with manganese, and ASTM-AZ31A (Fed SPec QQ-44), which is alloyed with aluminum, manganese, and zinc.

(5) In general, less preparation is required for welding with alternating current than welding with direct current because of the greater penetration obtained. Sheets up to 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) thickness may be welded from one side with a square butt joint. Sheets over 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) thickness should be welded from both sides whenever the nature of the structure permits, as sounder welds may be obtained with less warpages. For a double V joint, the included angle should extend from both sides to leave a minimum 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) root face in the center of the sheets. When welding a double V joint, the back of the first bead should be chipped out using a chipping hammer fitted with a cape chisel. Remove oxide film, dirt, and incompletely fused areas before the second bead is added. In this manner, maximum soundness is obtained.

(6) The gas should start flowing a fraction of a second before the arc is struck. The arc is struck by brushing the electrode over the surface. With alternating current, the arc should be started and stopped by means of a remote control switch. The average arc length should be about 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) when using helium and 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) when using argon. Current data and rod diameter are shown in table 7-24.

(7) When welding with alternating current, maximum penetration is obtained when the end of the electrode is held flush with or slightly below the surface of the work. The torch should be held nearly perpendicular to the surface of the work, and the welding rod added from a position as neatly parallel with the work as possible (fig. 7-14). The torch should have a slightly leading travel angle.

(8) Welding should progress in a straight line at a uniform speed. There should be no rotary or weaving motion of the rod or torch, except for larger corner joints or fillet welds. The welding rod can be fed either continuously or intermittently. Care should be taken to avoid withdrawing the heated end from the protective gaseous atmosphere during the welding operation. The cold wire filler metal should be brought in as near to horizontal as possible (on flat work). The filler wire is added to the leading edge of the weld puddle. Runoff tabs are recommended for welding any except the thinner metals. Forehand welding, in which the welding rod precedes the torch in the direction of welding, is preferred. If stops are necessary, the weld should be started about 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) back from the end of the weld when welding is resumed.

(9) Because of the high coefficient of thermal expansion and conductivity, control of distortion in the welding of magnesium requires jigging, small beads, and a properly selected welding sequence to help minimize distortion. Magnesium parts can be straightened by holding them in position with clamps and heating to 300 to 400°F (149 to 204°C). If this heating is done by local torch application, care must be taken not to overheat the metal and destroy its properties.

(10) If cracking is encountered during the welding of certain magnesium alloys, starting and stopping plates may be used to overcome this difficult. These plates consist of scrap pieces of magnesium stock butted against opposite ends of the joint to be welded as shown in A, figure 7-15. The weld is started on one of the abutting plates, continued across the junction along the joint to be welded, and stopped on the opposite abutting plate. If a V groove is used, the abutting plates should also be grooved. An alternate method is to start the weld in the middle of the joint and weld to each edge (B, fig. 7-15). Cracking may also be minimized by preheating the plate and holding the jig to 200 to 400°F (93 to 204°C) by increasing the speed of the weld.

(11) Filler reds must be of the same composition as the alloy being joined when arc welding. One exception is when welding AZ31B. In this case, grade C rod (MIL-R-6944), which produces a stronger weld metal, is used to reduce cracking.

(12) Residual stress should be relieved through heat treatment. Stress relief is essential so that lockup stresses will not cause stress corrosion cracking. The recommended stress relieving treatment for arc welding magnesium sheet is shown in table 7-25.

(13) The only cleaning required after arc welding of magnesium alloys is wire brushing to remove the slight oxide deposit on the surface. Brushing may leave traces of iron, which may cause galvanic corrosion. If necessary, clean as in b above. Arc welding smoke can be removed by immersing the parts for 1/2 to 2 minutes at 180 to 212°F (82 to 100°C), in a solution composed of 16 oz (453 g) tetrasodium pyrophosphate (Na₄P₂O₇), 16 oz (453 g) sodium metaborate (NaBO₂), and enough water to make 1 gallon (3.8 1).

(14) Welding procedure schedules for GTAW of magnesium (TIG welding) are shown in table 7-26.

(1) Titanium is a soft, silvery white, medium strength metal with very good corrosion resistance. It has a high strength to weight ratio, and its tensile strength increases as the temperature decreases. Titanium has low impact and creep strengths. It has seizing tendencies at temperatures above 800°F (427°C).

(2) Titanium has a high affinity for oxygen and other gases at elevated temperatures, and for this reason, cannot be welded with any process that utilizes fluxes, or where heated metal is exposed to the atmosphere. Minor amounts of impurities cause titanium to become brittle.

(3) Titanium has the characteristic known as the ductile-brittle transition. This refers to a temperature at which the metal breaks in a brittle manner, rather than in a ductile fashion. The recrystallization of the metal during welding can raise the transition temperature. Contamination during the high temperate period and impurities can raise the transition temperature period and impurities can raise the transition temperature so that the material is brittle at room temperatures. If contamination occurs so that transition temperature is raised sufficiently, it will make the welding worthless. Gas contamination can occur at temperatures below the melting point of the metal. These temperatures range from 700°F (371°C) up to 1000°F (538°C).

(4) At room temperature, titanium has an impervious oxide coating that resists further reaction with air. The oxide coating melts at temperatures considerably higher than the melting point of the base metal and creates problems. The oxidized coating may enter molten weld metal and create discontinuities which greatly reduce the strength and ductility of the weld.

(5) The procedures for welding titanium and titanium alloys are similar to other metals. Some processes, such as oxyacetylene or arc welding processes using active gases, cannot be used due to the high chemical activity of titanium and its sensitivity to embrittlement by contamination. Processes that are satisfactory for welding titanium and titanium alloys include gas shielded metal-arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding, and spot, seam, flash, and pressure welding. Special procedures must be employed when using the gas shielded welding processes. These special procedures include the use of large gas nozzles and trailing shields to shield the face of the weld from air. Backing bars that provide inert gas to shield the back of the welds from air are also used. Not only the molten weld metal, but the material heated above 1000°F (538°C) by the weld must be adequately shielded in order to prevent embrittlement. All of these processes provide for shielding of the molten weld metal and heat affected zones. Prior to welding, titanium and its alloys must be free of all scale and other material that might cause weld contamination.

(1) Surface cleaning is important in preparing titanium and its alloys for welding. Proper surface cleaning prior to welding reduces contamination of the weld due to surface scale or other foreign materials. Small amounts of contamination can render titanium completely brittle.

(2) Several cleaning procedures are used, depending on the surface condition of the base and filler metals. Surface conditions most often encountered are as follows:

(3) Metals that are scale free can be cleaned by simple decreasing.

(4) Metals with light oxide scale should be cleaned by acid pickling. In order to minimize hydrogen pickup, pickling solutions for this operation should have a nitric acid concentration greater than 20 percent. Metals to be welded should be pickled for 1 to 20 minutes at a bath temperature from 80 to 160°F (27 to 71°C). After pickling, the parts are rinsed in hot water.

(5) Metals with a heavy scale should be cleaned with sand, grit, or vaporblasting, molten sodium hydride salt baths, or molten caustic baths. Sand, grit, or vaporblasting is preferred where applicable. Hydrogen pickup may occur with molten bath treatments, but it can be minimized by controlling the bath temperature and pickling time. Bath temperature should be held at about 750 to 850°F (399 to 454°C). Parts should not be pickled any longer than necessary to remove scale. After heavy scale is removed, the metal should be pickled as described in (4) above.

(6) Surfaces of metals that have undergone oxyacetylene flame cutting operations have a very heavy scale, and may contain microscopic cracks due to excessive contamination of the metallurgical characteristics of the alloys. The best cleaning method for flame cut surfaces is to remove the contaminated layer and any cracks by machining operations. Certain alloys can be stress relieved immediately after cutting to prevent the propagation of these cracks. This stress relief is usually made in conjunction with the cutting operation.

(1) General. Both the MIG and TIG welding processes are used to weld titanium and titanium alloys. They are satisfactory for manual and automatic installations. With these processes, contamination of the molten weld metals and adjacent heated zones is minimized by shielding the arc and the root of the weld with inert gases (see (2)(b)) or special backing bars (see (2)(c)). In some cases, inert gas filler welding chambers (see (3)) are used to provide the required shielding. When using the TIG welding process, a thoriated tungsten electrode should be used. The electrode size should be the smallest diameter that will carry the welding current. The electrode should be ground to a point. The electrode may extend 1-1/2 times its diameter beyond the end of the nozzle. Welding is done with direct current, electrode negative (straight polarity). Welding procedure for TIG welding titanium are shown in table 7-28. Selection of the filler metal will depend upon the titanium alloys being joined. When welding pure titanium, a pure titanium wire should be used. When welding a titanium alloy, the next lowest strength alloy should be used as a filler wire. Due to the dilution which will take place dining welding, the weld deposit will pick up the required strength. The same considerations are true when MIG welding titanium.

(2) Shielding.

(3) Welding chambers.

(4) Joint designs. Joint designs for titanium are similar to those used for other metals. For welding a thin sheet, the tungsten-arc process generally is used. With this process, butt welds may be made with or without filler rod, depending on the thickness of the joint and fitup. Special shearing procedures sometimes are used so that the root opening does not exceed 8 percent of the sheet thickness. If fitup is this good, filler rod is not required. If fitup is not this good, filler metal is added to obtain full thickness joints. In welding thicker sheets (greater than 0.09 in. (2.3 mm)), both the tungsten-arc and consumable electrode processes are used with a root opening. For welding titanium plates, bars, or forgings, both the tungsten-arc and consumable electrode processes also are used with single and double V joints. In all cases, good weld penetration may be obtained with excessive drop through. However, penetration and dropthrough are controlled more easily by the use of proper backing fixtures.

(5) Welding variables.

(6) Weld defects.

(7) Availability of welding filler wire. Most of the titanium alloys which are being used in arc welding applications are available as wire for use as welding filler metal. These alloys are listed below:

(1) The nickel alloys will acquire a surface or coating which melts at a temperature approximately 1000°F (538°C) above the melting point of the base metal.

(2) The nickel alloys are susceptible to embrittlement at welding temperatures by lead, sulfur, phosphorus, and some low-temperature metals and alloys.

(3) Weld penetration is less than expected with other metals.